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Born: 13 May 1753 in Nolay, Burgundy, France
More a mathematician, Carnot's interests in his last years turned toward the steam engine with the first steam engine coming to Magdeburg in 1818. His son Sadi Carnot visited him in Magdeburg in 1821 and it is clear that Lazare Carnot influenced his son. Sadi Carnot published his masterpiece on the thermodynamics of the steam engine three years later
Born: 8 June 1625 in Perinaldo, Republic of Genoa (now Italy)
In 1650, Cassini became professor of mathematics and astronomy at the University of Bologna, filling the chair which had been vacant since the death of Cavalieri at the end of November 1647. From the work we can see that at this time Cassini believed in an Earth centred solar system, with comets beyond Saturn but originating from the Earth. Observations would lead him to accept the model of the solar system proposed by Tycho Brahe and, in 1659, he presented an Earth centred system with the moon and sun orbiting the Earth and the other planets orbiting the sun. Later he came to accept a version of the Copernican model. He was the first to observe four of Saturn's moons: Iapetus (1671), Rhea (1672), Tethys (1684), and Dione (1684). He discovered the gap in the ring system of Saturn now known as the Cassini division in 1675. Impressively he correctly proposed that the rings were composed of large numbers of tiny satellites each orbiting the planet. He drew a large Chart of the Moon, which he presented to the Académie des Sciences in 1679. This remained the best that was available prior to the invention of photography for astronomical purposes. Cassini's health began to deteriorate, in particular his eyesight became poor so that by 1711 he was nearly completely blind.
Celsius was born in Uppsala, one of a large number of scientists (all related) originating from Ovanåker in the province of Hälsingland. The family name is a latinised version of the name of the vicarage (Högen). His grandfathers were both professors in Uppsala: Magnus Celsius the mathematician and Anders Spole the astronomer. His father, Nils Celsius, was also professor in astronomy. Celsius, who was said to have been very talented in mathematics from an early age, was appointed professor of astronomy in 1730. He began his "grand tour", lasting for four years, in 1732, and he visited during these years almost all the notable european observatories of the day, where he worked with many of the leading 18th century astronomers. Soon after his return to Uppsala he participated in the French astronomer Maupertuis' famous expedition 1736 to Torneå, in the most northern part of Sweden. ("The Lapland expedition.") The aim of the expedition was to measure the length of a degree along a meridian, close to the pole, and compare the result with a similar expedition to Peru (today Ecuador) near the equator. The expeditons confirmed Newton's belief that the shape of the earth is an ellipsoid flattened at the poles. Celsius' participation in this expedition made him famous and was important in his efforts to interest the Swedish authorities in donating the resources necessary to build a modern observatory in Uppsala. He was successful, and the Celsius observatory was ready in 1741, equipped with instruments purchased during his long voyage abroad, comprising the most modern instrumental technology at that time. In those days geographical measurements, metereological observations and other things, not considered as astronomy today, were included in the work of an astronomy professor. He carried out many geographical measurements for the Swedish General map, and was also one of the first to note that the land of the nordic countries is slowly rising above sea level, a process which has been going on since the melting of the ice from the latest ice age. He believed though, that it was the water that was evaporating. For his metereological observations he constructed his world famous Celsius thermometer, with 0 for the boiling point of water and 100 for the freezing point. After his death in 1744 the scale was reversed to its present form. Together with his assistant Olof Hiorter he also was the first to realize that the aurora phenomenon has magnetic causes through observing the inclination of a compass-needle and finding that the larger deviations correlated with stronger aurora activity. In astronomy he made observations of eclipses and various astronomical objects. He published catalogues of carefully determined magnitudes for a total of 300 stars using his own photometric system (mean error=0.4 mag). The idea of his system consists of using identical transparent glass plates and viewing the ray of light from a star through them. He could then compare the magnitudes of the stars by the number of glass plates needed to extinguishe the light. (The star Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, needed 25 of his plates to be extinguished.) Celsius published most of his work in the publications of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala, which is the oldest Swedish scientific society founded in 1710, where Celsius was the secretary 1725-1744, and in the publications of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, founded in 1739. He also presided at about twenty dissertations in astronomy where, as was the general rule in those days, he was the main author. His popular book "Arithmetics for the Swedish Youth" (1741) was typical of the spirit of his period, the Enlightenment. Anders Celsius died of tuberculosis in april 1744, only 42 years old. His grave is next to his grandfather's, Magnus Celsius, in the church at "Gamla Uppsala", about 5 km north of central Uppsala.
Born: 19 Oct 1910 in Lahore, India (now Pakistan)
When Arthur Compton graduated from college he considered taking up a religious career. But his father advised him that he ought to go into science: "Your work in this field may become a more valuable Christian service than if you were to enter the ministry or become a missionary."
Born: 19 Feb 1473 in Torun, Poland
Copernicus provided evidence of the Aristarchus heliocentric model published under the title On the revolutions of the heavenly spheres (Nuremberg, 1543) almost at the very end of his life. It is said that he received a copy of the printed book for the first time on his deathbed. He died of a cerebral haemorrhage. Although he made some astronomical observations, this work is that of a mathematician using Ptolemy's data, who could read Greek and cite Aristarchus of Samos. NeoPlatonic and NeoPythagorean influences loom large: "In the center of it all rests the Sun. For who would place this lamp of a very beautiful temple in another or better place than wherefrom it can illuminate everything at the same time? As a matter of fact, not unhappily do some call it the lantern; others, the mind and still others, the pilot of the world. Trismegistus calls it a 'visible god'". In so placing the Sun, Copernicus "overthrew the hierarchy of positions in the ancient and medieval Cosmos, in which the central was not the most honorable, but, on the contrary, the most unworthy. It was, in effect, the lowest, and consequently appropriate to the Earth's imperfection. Perfection was located above in the celestial vault, above which were 'the heavens,' whilst Hell was deservedly placed beneath the surface of the Earth". Mikolaj Kopernik, well known by his Latin name Nicholas Copernicus was born in Torun, Poland in 1473. His father Niklas was a merchant and baker from Cracow, who migrated to Torun not later than 1458. He prospered there and was appointed magistrate for life. He married Barbara Watzenrode, daughter of a wealthy Torun merchant. His parents died when he was twelve, and he was entrusted to his uncle Lukas Watzenrode. Through his uncle, Lukas Watzenrode (1447-1512), who later became the bishop of Varmia (Ermland), was elected a canon of the cathedral chapter of Frombork (Frauenburg). In 1491-1495 his uncle enabled him to enter the University of Krakow. It was then famous for its mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy curriculum. Copernicus attended St. John's School in Torun and studied canon law at the University of Krakow from 1491 to 1495. Than in 1496 he begins Law studies in the University of Bologna to study both canon and civil law. There, he lodged with and worked as an assistant to Domenico Maria the Ferrarese of Novara from 1454 to 1504. Later he worked as an professor of mathematics and astrology and also the official compiler of prognostications for the university. After briefly returning to Frombork, Copernicus studied medicine at the University of Padua during years 1501-1503, where received a license to practice medicine. Then moved on to the University of Ferrara where in 1503 he obtained a doctorate in Canon Law. He then returned to Varmia, where he stayed for the rest of his life. Having been elected a canon of Frauenberg Cathedral, he returned home, assisted his uncle until the uncle's death, and then opened a free clinic for the poor. He acted as medical advisor and secretary to his uncle at Heilsberg, and was later heavily involved with the administrative tasks in the diocese of Frombork. in 1510-1512 Copernicus draws up a map of Warmia and the western borders of Royal Prussia for the Poznan convention of the King’s Council. Copernicus continues to hold both the office of Chancellor as well as Visitor in the Chapter House. In year 1511 he was appointed Chief Bursar in the Chapter. In 1514, the Lateran Council sought Copernicus's opinion on calendar reform. In 1514-1516 Frombork Chapter relieves Copernicus of his administrative duties. Copernicus purchased a house convenient for his astronomical observations; he has an observation platform built in the back for his astronomical instruments.
Born: 14 June 1736 in Angoulême, FranceDied: 23 Aug 1806 in Paris, France
She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize — she actually won it twice — and the first woman to earn a doctorate in Europe. Her investigations led to the discovery of radioactivity as well as the element radium. The word "radioactive" was first used by Marie Curie to describe her observations, as published in Comptes Rendus.
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